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Compendium Of Studies That Measure Learning Mindsets
Section 2: Belonging
Table 3: Additional Sample Information, Sample Survey Measure/s, and Response Scale/s
Instructions: Click “EXPAND” below to see more about the sample, survey item/s, and response scale/s used in each paper as well as the DOI or free online version when available.
† Indicates author is affiliated with Student Experience Research Network as a scholar or an early career fellow or mentor.
†Gopalan, M. & Brady, S. T. (2019). College students’ sense of belonging: A national perspective. Educational Researcher, 49(2), 134-137.
Additional Sample Information
Data are from the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, a nationally-representative survey of first-time, first-year U.S. college students during the 2011–2012 academic year with a 2-year follow-up.
Sample Survey Item/s
I feel that I am a part of [SCHOOL].
Response Scale
5 point response scale that ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Furlong, M. J., O’brennan, L. M., & You, S. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Add Health School Connectedness Scale for 18 sociocultural groups. Psychology in the Schools, 48(10), 986-997.
Additional Sample Information
- Study contains secondary analysis of data from the California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS); the sample was derived from the administration of the CHKS to students who completed its required core module during the 2003-2004 (57%) or 2004-2005 (43%) school years.
- 36% were in 7th grade, 28% were in 9th grade, and 3% were undergraduates or from secondary school placements.
- Ages ranged from 11 to 18, with 99% being between the ages of 12 to 17.
Sample Survey Item/s
- I feel close to people at this school.
- I feel like I’m part of this school.
- The teachers at this school treat students fairly.
Response Scale
5 point response scale that ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M. & Blum, R. W. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138-146.
Resnick, M.D., Bearman, P.S., Blum, R.W., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association,;278(10), 823–832.
Fong, C. J., Alejandro, A. J., Krou, M. R., Segovia, J., & Johnston-Ashton, K. (2019). Ya’at’eeh: Race-reimaged belongingness factors, academic outcomes, and goal pursuits among Indigenous community college students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101805.
Additional Sample Information
Both samples were primarily drawn from the Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) 2015 dataset, and linked to data from the Integrated Postsecondary Educational Data System (IPEDS).
Sample 1
- Students were enrolled (78% full-time) in one of 156 majority (65%) rural community colleges across the U.S. located within 34 states.
- 31% of the sample was over the age of 25.
- 25-33% of students at each institution were enrolled in some form of developmental education.
Sample 2
- Propensity score matching was used to select students who self-identified as any race except for Native American or Alaskan Native and who had the most similar characteristics to students in sample 1.
Sample Survey Item/s
Campus support
- Mark the number that best represents the quality of your relationship with people at this college: Other students.
- Mark the number that best represents the quality of your relationship with people at this college: Instructors.
Family-friend support
- How supportive are your friends of your attending this college?
Response Scale
For faculty relationships, students rated their instructors on a range from available, helpful, and sympathetic to unavailable, unhelpful, and unsympathetic.
For staff relationships, administration personnel were rated on a range from helpful, considerate, and flexible to unhelpful, inconsiderate, and rigid.
For relationships with other students, these were rated as friendly, supportive, and sense of belonging on one end of the scale and unfriendly, unsupportive, and alienation on the other end.
Additional source(s) for survey measure
†Walton, G. M., Logel, C., Peach, J. M., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2015). Two brief interventions to mitigate a “chilly climate” transform women’s experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 468-485.
Additional Sample Information
First year engineering students from the University of Waterloo (Ontario, Canada)
Sample Survey Item/s
Sense of social and academic fit was assessed using 10 items, including:
- People at [school name] accept me.
- I belong in [subject, e.g., engineering] at [school name].
- I feel comfortable in [subject] at [school name].
Response Scale
7 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (7)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
†Walton, G. M. & †Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82-96.
Additional Sample Information
- Study 1: Undergraduates from a private Northeastern university
- Study 2: First year undergraduates from a private Northeastern university
Sample Survey Item/s
Sense of social and academic fit was assessed using 17 items, including:
- People at [school name] accept me.
- I feel like an outsider at [school name].
Belonging uncertainty was assessed using 3 items, including:
- Sometimes I feel that I belong at [school name], and sometimes I feel that I don’t belong at [school name].
Prospective belonging uncertainty was assessed using 4 items, including:
- Sometimes I worry that I will not belong in college.
Response Scale
Sense of social and academic fit (17 items) and belonging uncertainty (3 items):
- 7 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (7)
Prospective belonging uncertainty:
- 5 point response scale ranged from Not at all true (1) to Completely true (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
†Stephens, N. M., †Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178-1197.
Additional Sample Information
- Study 3: Undergraduate students from a private university
- Study 4: Undergraduate students with a mean age of ~18.2 years old
- Study 5: Undergraduate students with a mean age of ~18.8 years old
Sample Survey Item/s
Response Scale
Additional source(s) for survey measure
†Wallace, T.L., Ye, F., & Chhuon, V. (2012). Subdimensions of adolescent belonging in high school. Applied Developmental Science, 16(3), 122-139.
Additional Sample Information
Phase 2 –
Transgender: 0-3%; Non gendered: 0-3%; Refusal to answer/nonresponse: 0-5%
Mean ages:
- 9th grade: 15.8
- 10th grade: 16.2
- 11th grade: 16.9
- 12th grade: 17.4
Sample Survey Item/s
Phase 2 –
Eighteen items from the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) survey were used.
- Ex. I feel like a real part of [this school].
Five items from the Tripod survey of student perceptions of secondary-level teaching were used.
- Ex. My teacher seems to know if something is bothering me.
Nine Adolescent Perception of Being Known (A-PBK) items were derived from focus groups that were conducted during phase 1.
- Ex. My teacher asks how she/he can help me.
Response Scale
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Goodenow, C. (1993). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30(1), 79–90.
Kane, T. J., & Staiger, D. O. (2011). Gathering feedback for teaching: Combining high-quality observations with student surveys and achievement gains. MET Project Research Paper. Seattle, WA: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V. J., Davis, A., & Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: implications for African American students’ college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 896.
Additional Sample Information
Study 3 – Participants (incoming undergraduates) received three packets of seven identical, structured questionnaires to be completed for 21 consecutive nights. Participants who completed all 21 diaries received $25.
Sample Survey Item/s
Study 3 – Three scales assessed participants’ sense of belonging in the university. The instructions for each scale were to “circle the number that best describes your feelings toward the university now.”
Response Scale
- The first scale ranged from thrilled to be here (1) to miserable (10).
- The second scale ranged from definitely fit in (1) to do NOT fit in (10).
- The third scale ranged from very welcome (1) to NOT welcome (10).
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Maloney, T. & †Matthews, J.S. (2020). Teachers’ critical care and students’ feelings of connectedness in the urban mathematics classroom. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 51(4), 399-432..
Additional Sample Information
- Sample was drawn from 12 classrooms spanning two K-8 schools, two high schools, and one secondary school with 7th – 12th grades. All 12 teachers were also interviewed using a semi-structured protocol.
- 48% of students in the sample were 9th graders, 10% were 8th graders, 10.6% were 7th graders, 19.6% were 6th graders, and 11.8% were 5th graders.
- Participants were asked to return parental consent forms and sign assent forms; the response rate was about 64%.
Sample Survey Item/s
The student survey was based on the Mathematics Classroom Connectedness Scale (MCCS) and contained nine items, organized into three subscales:
Emotional support from the teacher.
- Ex. My math teacher is someone I can count on to help me.
My math class is like a family.
- Ex. Students in math class help each other, even if they are not close friends.
My contributions are valued.
- Ex. My math teacher knows that I can do good work.
Response Scale
6 point response scale that ranged from Completely disagree (1) to Completely agree (6)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Matthews, J. S. (2018). When am I ever going to use this in the real world? Cognitive flexibility and urban adolescents’ negotiation of the value of mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(5), 726-746
Walton, G. M., Logel, C., Peach, J. M., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2015). Two brief interventions to mitigate a “chilly climate” transform women’s experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 468–485.
Sánchez, B., Colón, Y., & Esparza, P. (2005). The role of sense of school belonging and gender in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(6), 619-628.
Additional Sample Information
- 12th graders from an urban Midwestern public high school
- 61% of fathers sampled had less than a high school education; 26% of fathers had a high school education
Sample Survey Item/s
18 items were used to assess sense of belonging in school, including:
- I feel like a real part of [name of school].
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Not at all true (1) to Completely true (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Goodenow, C. (1993). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30(1), 79-90.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
†Matthews, J. S., Banerjee, M., & Lauermann, F. (2014). Academic identity formation and motivation among ethnic minority adolescents: The role of the “self” between internal and external perceptions of identity. Child Development, 85(6), 2355-2373.
Additional Sample Information
Adolescents from grades 6, 8, and 10 from seven middle schools in Harlem and the South Bronx (NYC)
Sample Survey Item/s
15 items were used to measure school belonging and value as well as an internal commitment to school, including:
- I feel proud of being part of my school.
- People at school are interested in what I have to say.
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Pintrich, P. R., & de Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.
Voelkl, K. E. (1996). Measuring students’ identification with school. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56(5), 760–770.
Lewis, K. L. & Hodges, S. D. (2015). Expanding the concept of belonging in academic domains: Development and validation of the Ability Uncertainty Scale. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 197-202.
Additional Sample Information
Study 1 – Mean age was 19.74 years.
Study 2 – Mean age was 19.89 years.
Sample Survey Item/s
Study 1 – Belonging uncertainty was measured using the 12-item Ability Uncertainty Scale (AUS).
- Ex. I worry my abilities aren’t good enough to do well in my major.
- Ex. I feel confident about my abilities in my major.
Study 2 – Belonging uncertainty was also measured using the 12-item Ability Uncertainty Scale (AUS). Fourteen additional items were asked from the Belonging to Math Scale.
Response Scale
6 point response scale that ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (6)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Good, C. D., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717.
Master, A., †Cheryan, S., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2016). Computing whether she belongs: Stereotypes undermine girls’ interest and sense of belonging in computer science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 424-437.
Additional Sample Information
- Study 1: Students at two high schools (one private and one public) in the Northwest
- Study 2: Students from a public high school in the Northwest
Sample Survey Item/s
Four items were averaged to assess how much students felt that they belonged in this class, including:
- How well they would fit in the general environment of this class
- How well they would fit in with the students in this class
Response Scale
7 point response scale ranged from Not at all (1) to Extremely (7)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Cheryan, S., Plaut, V. C., Davies, P. G., & Steele, C. M. (2009). Ambient belonging: how stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. Journal of personality and social psychology, 97(6), 1045-1060.
Goyer, J. P., et al. (2019). Targeted identity safety interventions cause lasting reductions in discipline citations among ethnic-minority boys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(2), 229-259.
Additional Sample Information
Study 2 – Students’ discipline outcomes were tracked for seven years.
Sample Survey Item/s
Study 2
Belonging uncertainty was measured using two items:
- Ex. Sometimes I feel like I belong at [school name], and sometimes I feel like I don’t belong at [school name].
Stereotype threat was measured using six items:
- Ex. In school, I worry that people will judge my racial group, based on the behavior or performance of other people in my race.
Social belonging was measured using ten items:
- Ex. I feel like I belong in my school.
Response Scale
Two response scales were used:
- 7 point response scale that ranged from Very much disagree (1) to Very much agree (7)
- 6 point response scale that ranged from Very much disagree (1) to Very much agree (6)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2005). “I am us”: Negative stereotypes as collective threats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 566–582.
Cook, J. E., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., & Cohen, G. L. (2012). Chronic threat and contingent belonging: Protective benefits of values affirmation on identity development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 479–496.
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 92(1), 82–96.
Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1995). Measuring belongingness: The social connectedness and the social assurance scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 232-241.
Additional Sample Information
Undergraduates from a large urban Southeast university were divided into 2 samples
Sample Survey Item/s
Social connectedness was measured using 8 items, including:
- I feel disconnected from the world around me.
Social assurance was measured using 8 items, including:
- I feel more comfortable when someone is constantly with me.
Response Scale
6 point response scale ranged from Strongly agree (1) to Strongly disagree (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Hurtado, S., & Carter, D. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70(4), 324-345.
Additional Sample Information
Latinx college students from the National Survey of Hispanic Students who were among the top PSAT achievers and semifinalists of the national scholarship reward
Sample Survey Item/s
Sense of belonging on a campus was assessed using items such as:
- I see myself as a part of the campus community.
- I feel that I am a member of the campus community.
Response Scale
11 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (0) to Strongly agree (10)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Hoffman, M., Richmond, J., Morrow, J., & Salomone, K. (2002). Investigating “sense of belonging” in first-year college students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 4(3), 227-256.
Additional Sample Information
Freshman in seminar classes at the University of Rhode Island
Sample Survey Item/s
Belonging was assessed using 30 items, including:
- I feel comfortable asking a question in class.
- I feel comfortable volunteering ideas or opinions in class.
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Mostly true (1) to Completely untrue (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., †Priniski, S. J., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). Closing achievement gaps with a utility-value intervention: Disentangling race and social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 745-765.
Additional Sample Information
Undergraduates enrolled in an introductory biology course at a large Midwestern university
Sample Survey Item/s
Belonging uncertainty was measured with two items, including:
- When something bad happens, I feel that maybe I don’t belong at [university].
Response Scale
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 62(1), 60-71.
Additional Sample Information
Middle school students, grades 7-9 from two schools in a mid-sized city in the Northeast with a largely working class population were sampled.
Sample Survey Item/s
Sense of school membership was assessed using 18 items, including:
- Most teachers at this school are interested in me.
- I feel like a real part of this school.
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Not at all true (1) to Completely true (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Goodenow, C. (1993). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools,30(1), 79-90.
Good, C. D., Rattan, A., & †Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717.
Additional Sample Information
- Study 1: Students at a highly selective university in the Northeast were surveyed during a calculus course.
- Study 2: Students at a highly selective university were surveyed.
- Study 3: Students at a highly selective university on the East Coast were surveyed during a calculus course.
Sample Survey Item/s
Participants were presented with the question stem, “When I am in a math setting…” followed by 30 items, including:
- I feel that I belong to the math community.
- I consider myself a member of the math world.
Response Scale
8 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (8)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Covarrubias, R., & †Fryberg, S. A. (2015). The impact of self-relevant representations on school belonging for Native American students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 10-18.
Additional Sample Information
Measures were adapted for use with a sample of Native American middle school students with a mean age of 12.66.
Sample Survey Item/s
School belonging was measured using 11 items, including:
- I feel like students at school accept me.
- I feel like I get along well with students at school.
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82-96.
†Cheryan, S., Plaut, V. C., Davies, P. G., & Steele, C. M. (2009). Ambient belonging: How stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1045-1060.
Additional Sample Information
- Study 1: Non-Computer Science majors
- Studies 2-4: Psychology undergraduates
Sample Survey Item/s
- Studies 1 and 2: Ambient belonging was measured by 2 questions, including how much they felt they belonged and how similar they felt to others in the environment.
- Study 3: To measure ambient belonging, participants were asked 4 items, including how much they associated stereotypical objects with themselves and how similar they were to the employees in different companies.
- Study 4: To measure ambient belonging, participants were asked 3 items, including how similar they were to the employees in different companies.
Response Scale
7 point response scale ranged from Not at all (1) to Extremely (7)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Anderman, L. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging. The Journal of Experimental Education, 72(1), 5-22.
Additional Sample Information
Middle school students from seven public schools
Sample Survey Item/s
6 items were used: 3 entity statements and 3 incremental theory statements.
Sample entity theory statements:
- You have a certain amount of intelligence, and you really can’t do much to change it.
Sample incremental theory statements:
- You can always greatly change how intelligent you are.
Response Scale
6 point response scale that ranged from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (6)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Dweck, C.S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 1999.
†Broda, M., et al. (2018). Reducing inequality in academic success for incoming college students: A randomized trial of growth mindset and belonging interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 11(3), 317-338.
Additional Sample Information
First year students at large midwestern university (Michigan State University)
Sample Survey Item/s
Prospective belonging uncertainty was measured using four items, including:
- Sometimes I worry that I will not belong in college.
- I am anxious that I will not fit in at college.
Response Scale
5 point response scale ranged from Not at all true (1) to Completely true (5)
Additional source(s) for survey measure
Hong, Y. Y., Chiu, C. Y., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M. S., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: a meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,77(3), 588-599.
